Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences

Download PDF Download ePUB
 Review Article

Review Article

Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences 2 (4S): 48 – 54
Special Issue–4 (2014) (Reviews on Frontiers in Animal and Veterinary Sciences)

Biomaterials for Hernia Repair in Animals; a Review

Abdul Mohsina1, Paramasivam Tamilmahan1*, Dayamon David Mathew1, Vellachi Remya1, Ninu Ajantha Ravindran1, Naveen Kumar1, Swapan Kumar Maiti1, Kumaragurubaran Karthik2, Manjunathachar Haranahalli Vasanthachar3

  1. Division of Veterinary Surgery, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India–243122
  2. Division of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India–243122
  3. Division of Veterinary Parasitology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India–243122

*Corresponding author:drtamilmahan.bison@gmail.com

ARTICLE CITATION: Mohsina A, Tamilmahan P, Mathew DD, Remya V, Ravindran NA, Kumar N, Maiti SK, Karthik K, Vasanthachar MH (2014). Biomaterials for Hernia Repair in animals; a review. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 2 (4S): 48 – 54.
Received: 2014–04–02, Revised: 2014–05–14, Accepted: 2014–05–14
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at ( http://dx.doi.org/10.14737/journal.aavs/2014/2.4s.48.54 ) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

ABSTRACT

Hernia is a common surgical affection of animals and its treatment may vary from simple herniorrhaphy to hernioplasty depending on the size of the defects. Because of associated complications, synthetic materials are now being replaced by biological materials like acellular dermal grafts, acellular diaphragm, acellular aorta etc. Seeding of either embryonic or mesenchymal stem cells on grafts has found to ameliorate the healing time and cosmetic appearance. Skin fibroblasts possess the ability to inhibit the invitro expansion of T lymphocytes. Like mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), fibroblasts also secrete modulatory molecules like PGE2 and nitric oxide. Stem cell seeded bioengineered acellular grafts proved to be more effective than non seeded grafts as they reduce the immunogenicity of grafts and this seems to be a growing field in hernial treatment. This review article discusses decellularization, tissue engineering and use of acellular collagen matrices and fibroblast seeded scaffolds in hernioplasty.

INTRODUCTION

Hernia is defined as the protrusion of the contents of a body cavity through a normal or abnormal opening in the wall of that cavity either to lie beneath the intact skin or to occupy another adjacent body cavity. In most of the abdominal hernias the parietal peritoneum covers the herniated structure and is called the hernial sac, which protrudes through the hernial ring (Malangoni and Rosen, 2007). Abdominal hernia is a term used to describe a hernia through any part of the abdominal wall other than a natural orifice. Small hernial ring with reducible hernial contents can be treated by conventional methods (Stock, 1954). Repair of extensive abdominal wall defects and voluminous hernias in animals poses great difficulties mainly due to large sized hernial rings and immense distortion of hernial margin. Recurrence in these cases occurs frequently and the deformity gets even worse because of inadequate tissue at the site to enable a satisfactory closure. These problems can be overcome by use of special methods like hernioplasty with implantation of biomaterials.

The surgical procedure for reconstruction of abdominal wall defects has gone through a series of changes. Previously small abdominal wall defects were reconstructed by simply apposing muscles later came the era of synthetic prosthetics and meshes which proved to be proficient in case of large hernial defects. The most frequent complication leading to implant failure and recurrence is infection of the surgical site (Ingle–Fehr et al., 1997). To avoid these complications, the prosthetic material should be inert, but it should also support fibroplasia (Johnson, 1969). Mesh repair proved to be better than suture repair resulting in lesser recurrence rate, abdominal pain and complications (Burger et al., 2004; Penttinen and Gronroos, 2008).

Meshes can be placed either intraperitoneally or extraperitoneally. In the latter it can be placed either as inlay or outlay. The prosthetic material can be applied simply by physical pressure between the layers of abdominal wall (Stoppa and Rives, 1984), by suturing with non–absorbable material (Lichtenstein et al, 1989), absorbable material (Gianlupi and Trindade, 2004), clips (Read, 2011) or fibrin glue (Agresta and Bedin, 2008; Negro et al., 2011). One advantage of inlay technique is minimal dissection of soft tissue, thereby reducing devascularised tissue and its drawback is high recurrence rate. Outlay technique is having demerit of extensive soft tissue dissection (Penttinen and Gronroos, 2008). First biomaterial for hernia repair was silver mesh described by Witzel (1900). Later other materials were introduced like nylon (Acquaviva and Bourret, 1944), perlon (Kneise, 1953), polyethylene (Usher, 1958), silk mesh (Handley, 1963), etc. Among synthetic materials polypropylene is a suitable material for abdominal wall defect repair, because of the inert nature it can be used even in presence of infection and contamination (Bellon et al., 1997; Vilar et al., 2009).

Because of the complications encountered in the use of synthetic materials in hernioplasty they are now being replaced by biological materials like fibrin hydrogel, alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid and collagen based acellular grafts (Pereira et al., 2013). These are having excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability and weak antigenicity make collagen one of the most useful biomaterial (Lee et al., 2001). The cells present in the cellular graft are responsible for immunological rejection of the grafts (Gulati and Cole, 1994). Immunological reaction prompted by local and systemic T helper cells are responsible for the production of anti–inflammatory cytokines and non–complement fixing antibodies in case of small intestinal submucosa (Allman et al., 2001). Cartmell and Dunn (2000) advocated that removal cells from the graft may reduce the antigenicity of the graft. Gulati and Cole (1994) observed less immunogenicity and better tolerance of acellular grafts in rats and rabbits. Zhang et al., (2002) also found acellular dermal matrix of xenogenic origin as an ideal material with features like adequate compatibility and low absorption properties.

Fibroblasts play an important role in regeneration of new tissues due to their growth accelerating property of tissue cells by secreting several growth factors and extra cellular matrix (ECM). Primary mouse embryonic fibroblast (p–MEFs) is an attractive cell culture model owing to its unique characteristics like lack of immunogenicity and ability to act as feeder cells. In comparison to other primary explant cultures they can be established easily and maintained and proliferated rapidly resulting in exponential increase in cells from a single embryo within several days (Garfield, 2010). Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Class II antigens present on the transplanted cells are responsible for graft rejection. Fibroblasts are relatively immunologically inert as they lack these surface molecules. Seeding of fibroblasts on the biomaterials not only improved healing time but also the cosmetic appearance (Lamme et al., 2000; Remya, 2012).

Prosthesis in Hernia Repair
Synthetic and biological materials can be used as prosthesis for the repair of large abdominal wall defects. The different synthetic materials used are polyester fabric (Shoukry et al., 1997), nylon, Dacron and stainless steel (Kanade et al., 1988; George and Mohammad, 1993), cotton mesh (Kanade and Kumar,1990), mosquito net mesh (Stephenson and Kingsnorth, 2011), vicryl mesh (Buchsbaum et al., 1985), polypropylene mesh (Kassam et al., 2014), expanded polytetrafluro ethylene (PTFE) (Kennedy and Matyas, 1999; Gillion et al., 1999), mersilene mesh (Riply and Mc Carnon,1994), Carbon fibers and Carbon sheet (Gangwar, 2002), oxidized generated cellulose, polyethylene glycol and hylan G–F20 (Altinli et al., 2011). A synthetic non–absorbable material Polypropylene mesh (PP), is the most widely used material for abdominal wall replacement and reinforcement during hernia repair (Bastos et al., 2006).

Prosthetic materials can be absorbable or non–absorbable. Non–absorbable synthetic meshes like polypropylene and PTFE provide good mechanical strength, but can lead to complications like bowel adherence and obstruction, fistula development, wound infection and seroma/ hematoma formation (Aldridge and Simson, 2001; Losanoff et al., 2002; Korenkov et al., 2002; Besim et al., 2002). Synthetic absorbable materials like Dacron and Teflon were widely used. Synthetic materials are now being replaced by biological materials like acellular dermal grafts (Gangwar, 2002; Purohit, 2008), acellular diaphragm (Perme, 2007; Kaarthick, 2011), acellular aorta (Kumar et al., 2012) etc because of the complications that resulted from their use in hernioplasty. Absorbable biological graft materials have better potential to combat infection and are found to be effective and superior in contrast to synthetic non–absorbable materials (Daghighi et al., 2013).

As an alternative biological materials can be used in the repair of defect. But cellular grafts may cause immunological reactions due to the presence of histocompatable antigens. These complications can be prevented by use of decellularized matrices and these are the latest alternative in this series. Biological materials reported to be used are small intestinal submucosa and acellular dermis (Dalla–Vecchia et al.,1999; Avella et al., 2011), tensor fascia lata, rectus abdominis fascia, latissimus dorsi muscle (Brennman et al.,1995), human duramater (Takahashi et al.,1994), porcine dermal collagen (Zhang et al., 2003), diaphragm ( Varshney et al., 1990), autologus full thickness skin and dermis (Bhattacharya and Bose, 1998), decellularized porcine small intestinal submucosa (Turner et al., 2011), human acellular dermis (Bellows et al., 2007), human acellular collagen matrix (Dufrane et al., 2008), acellular dermal graft and glutaraldehyde treated acellular dermal graft (Gangwar, 2002), porcine acellular dermal matrix and porcine small intestinal submucosa (Liu and Bhatia, 2002; Zhang et al., 2003), collagen binding basic fibroblast growth factor loaded collagen scaffolds (Shi et al., 2011), fibroblast seeded PLLA (poly lactic acid) 3D scaffolds (Pu et al., 2010), decellularized dermal scaffolds seeded with autologus bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (Zhao et al., 2012). Bovine parietal peritoneum for repair of ventral hernia in rat model was successfully done by Bastos et al., (2006).

Advantages of biological materials include their ability to ward off infection due to release of antimicrobial peptides and non–complement fixing antibodies, and induction of a mild inflammatory response, host cell migration and angiogenesis. Their disadvantages are their high cost, rapid break down, host foreign body reaction and loss of graft material in the infected regions (Bellows et al., 2007). Preparation of acellular collagen rich tissue matrices is done by physical, chemical or enzymatic manipulation of different tissues like bone, skin, blood vessel wall, bladder submucosa, small intestinal submucosa etc. (Yoo et al., 1998; Chen et al., 1999). These acellular collagen rich tissue matrices have less immunogenicity and better tolerance than cellular grafts due to their reduced antigenicity (Gulati and Cole, 1994). Antigenic epitopes, damage associated molecular pattern (DAMP) and DNA molecules present in the biological matrices are removed by decellularization and chemical cross–linking process (Bianchi, 2007; Lotze, 2007). p–MEF or mesenchymal stem cells seeded biological scaffolds are widely used now a days. p–MEFs act as a feeder layer as it secretes the necessary factors required for development of other cell types and it is having high proliferative and regenerative capacity (Garfield, 2010). In the surgical treatment of skeletal muscle restoration, biological scaffolds represent a promising option.

Biomaterials
Any natural or synthetic material, comprising a part or whole of a living structure or biomedical device which carry out a natural function, augments it or replaces it is defined as a biomaterial. Biomaterials have emerged into a science, in fifty years time period. Biomaterial science deals with the study of biomaterials (Ratner et al., 2004). Biomaterial science comprises various branches of medicine, tissue engineering, material science biology and chemistry. An ideal biomaterial should be inert completely, it should have sufficient strength to hold during healing, should have good handling characteristics, should be easily sterilisable, should be non–toxic, non–carcinogenic, non–teratogenic and inexpensive (Rousch, 2003).

Extracellular matrix is obtained after eliminating cells present in a tissue or organ to produce a structure containing only structural and functional proteins which are released from the inhabitant cells of the organ or tissue from which they are developed (Gilbert et al., 2006; Badylak et al., 2009). It forms the framework for organic scaffolds. One of the prime ingredients of ECM is glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and is responsible for the water retention and gel function of ECM. It binds growth factors and cytokines (Badylak, 2002).

Even though ECM is present in every tissues and organs, for therapeutic applications they should be gathered from limited sources. The extracellular matrices have been derived from variety of tissues like small intestinal submucosa ( Kumar, 2010; Aachoui and Ghosh, 2011), urinary bladder (Zhu et al., 2010; Dewangan, 2010; Eberli., 2011; Haichao, 2013), tendons (Longo et al., 2010), ligaments (Kew et al., 2011), tracheal matrix (Zhang et al., 2012), pericardium, diaphragm (Perme, 2007; Kaarthick, 2011), skin (Purohit, 2008), fish swim bladder (Kumar, 2010; Remya, 2012) for tissue engineering.

The functional requirements of dermal substitutes are, it should safeguard the wound from infection and fluid loss, provide a firm and biodegradable mould for the formation of new dermal tissue, should enhance migration of cells, should be easy to handle and withstand tear forces. (Van der Veen et al., 2010). Biodegradability of biological graft materials can be reduced by creating irreversible cross–links between the inhabitant molecules. (Badylak et al., 2009). Cross linking of collagen matrix can be done by reagents like glutaraldehyde (Yannas,1996), di–isocyanate (Oliver et al.,1982) or diphenylephosphorilazide (Petite et al.1994). The definition of tissue engineering according to Langer and Vacanti (1993) is "an interdisciplinary field that applies the principles of engineering and life sciences toward the development of biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function or a whole organ". MacArthur and Oreffo (2005) defined tissue engineering as "understanding the principles of tissue growth, and applying this to produce functional replacement tissue for clinical use."

Tissue engineering uses combination of cells, engineering and materials methods, and suitable biochemical and physio–chemical factors for replacing or improving biological functions (Langer and Vacanti, 1993). It was once classified as a sub–field of biomaterials , but now as it has gained immense scope and importance it can be considered solely as a field that needs further classification. While The term tissue engineering is closely associated with applications that repair or replace either portions of or whole of tissues (i.e., bone, cartilage, blood vessels, bladder, skin, muscle etc.) such that they retain mechanical and structural properties for its proper functioning.

For developing engineered tissues both in–vitro and in–vivo approaches can be adopted. In the in–vitro approach organs are created in tissue culture flask or bioreactors for implantation and replacement of diseased or damaged tissue, and have received special attention from the lay press. In the in–vivo approach an acellular biomaterial is created with clues conductive for tissue cell recruitment into the biomaterial and inductive of cell differentiation to form the needed tissue. Bioactive and a biopolymer backbone are often present in many fabrication engineered for implantation. Bioactives stimulate tissue cells to migrate, proliferate and differentiate. The function of biopolymers is to mechanically support cell migration and proliferation. If prepared from natural ECM, additional biological stimuli to support cell and tissue function may be provided by these scaffolds and hydrogels (Lutolf and Hubbell, 2005). Different functions provided by engineered tissue are structural (bone, cartilage, and skin) or metabolic (liver, pancreas), or both (Chapekar, 2000).

Collagen is still the protein of choice for biomaterials preparation due to its superior biocompatibility and low immunogenicity and collagen–based biomaterials are the ones which are most opted for. Collagen from various tissue sources can be extracted and assembled by combining with other molecules. It is also used in the laboratory as a decellularized ECM in fundamental studies or in medical applications as tissue replacement material. Tissue engineering has progressed rapidly in recent years and has now evolved as an alternative to transplantation of tissue/organ (Chapekar, 2000). It has provided drastic advances in all fields of surgery like ophthalmology (Chirila,2010; Hashimoto et al., 2010; Pang et al., 2010; Trese et al., 2012), orthopedic surgery (Ivkovic et al., 2011; Mahapatra and Khan, 2011; Khan et al., 2012), dental surgery (Bohi et al., 1998; Balasundaram et al., 2012; Payne, 2014), soft tissue surgery (Black et al.,1998), cardiovascular surgery (Schoen, 2011; Kurobe et al., 2012; Lam and Wu, 2012; Moroni and Mirabella, 2014) and neurosurgery (Huang et al., 2009; Cullen et al., 2011; Aronson et al., 2012).

Decellularization
A decellularization procedure usually initiates with disintegration of cell membrane using physical treatments or ionic solutions, followed by enzymatic treatment which removes cellular constituents of ECM. Later cellular detritus of tissue is dislodged. Along with these procedures mechanical stirring can be performed to enhance the potency (Gilbert et al., 2006). For solubilizing cytoplasmic ingredients of the cell and for eliminating nucleic acids RNA and DNA , treatment with acidic and alkaline solutions can be done. Porcine small intestinal submucosa can be made acellular by treating with 0.10–0.15% (w/v) peracetic acid (PAA). This treatment effectively eliminates cellular components from thin ECM construct along with disinfecting them by invading microbes and microbial enzyme oxidation. (Hodde and Hiles, 2002).

Minimizing the immune reaction of hosts and lowering the antigenicity of graft by cross linking are the two different approaches utilized to reduce rejection of these materials (Rosenberg et al., 1987). Yannas (1996) demonstrated that antigenicity of collagen was quantifiable but the real actual significance of such antigenicity was found to be negligible because of minimal difference between collagen of different species. Such a minimal antigenicity was found to be shown by remaining cellular components and ECM matrix protein in tissues treated with glutaraldehyde. (Coito and Kupiec–Weglinsky, 1996). The acellular grafts were less immunogenic having better tolerance by allogenic hosts and equally effective as isograft (Gulati and Cole, 1994; Nagao et al., 2011).

Depending on the organs and tissues of interest the method of decellularisation alter extensively and different factors like tissue origin, distinct physical, chemical and enzymatic procedures determine the effectiveness of the procedure. The biochemical conformation, fine structure of tissue and instinctive nature of the resultant ECM scaffold will be affected by these treatment procedures which alter host response to the material. The objective of decellularisation procedure is to efficaciously eliminate all cellular and nuclear components along with diminishing detrimental impacts of conformation, biological functions and instinctive stability of the residual ECM (Gilbert et al., 2006).

The decellularized tissues retained their natural mechanical characters and by blood vessel proliferation and host cell migration the prosthesis was reconstructed (Schmidt and Baier, 2000). Class I and II histocompatibility antigens and glycoproteins present in extracellular matrices will be identified by immune system and have the ability to evoke rejection reactions. For preventing rejection reactions these components should be removed, but their entire removal is strenuous to execute and substantiate. (Malone et al., 1984; Wong and Griffiths, 2014).

Physical methods of decellularisation include snap freezing (Wang et al., 2012; Sheridan et al., 2013), mechanical agitation and sonication, applying direct pressure (Freytas et al., 2004). The chemical methods of decellularisation include use of acid and alkaline agents, Non–ionic detergents like triton X–100, ionic detergents like sodium dodecyl sulfate, triton X–200, zwitter ionic detergents like 3–[(3–cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]–1–propanesulfonate (CHAPS), sulfobetaine–10 and –16 (SB10, SB–16), Tri(n–butyl) phosphate, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. The enzymatic method of decellularisation includes use of trypsin, endonucleases and exonucleases (Gilbert et al., 2006).

Solubilization of both cytoplasmic and nuclear cellular membranes can be efficiently done by ionic detergents and they denature proteins by deranging synergy between proteins (Seddon et al., 2004). Even though Sodium deoxycholate productively eliminate cellular residues, it induces substantial disturbance to normal tissue framework in contrast to sodium dodecyl sulphate (Gilbert et al., 2006). For disintegrating cells within tissues and organs osmotic shock of hypotonic solutions like deionized water can be utilized. (Woods and Gratzer, 2005).

Fibroblasts
The fibroblasts are cells usually existing in connective tissues and they constantly release predecessors of extracellular matrix like collagens, glycosaminoglycans, reticular and elastic fibers and glycoproteins in mammalian tissues. Skin fibroblasts have the ability to hinder the in vitro multiplication of T lymphocytes. Like mesenchymal stem cells, fibroblasts produce modulatory molecules PGE2 and nitric oxide. (Bouffi et al., 2011).

A thin three dimensional sheet of ECM material can be created in–vitro by inducing fibroblasts. (Ishikawa et al., 1997; Sakai et al., 2013). Fibroblasts remodel the collagen matrix from dendritic to stellate/bipolar, and punctuate cell matrix interactions are matured to form focal adhesion organization. Divya and Nandakumar (2006) found that collagen being chemotactic for fibroblasts, augments sequestration of fibroblasts through the fibrillar arrangement of scaffold and it enhances bonding of fibers and clot by prompting platelet degranulation in vivo. Fibroblasts grown on DMEM media were found to be spindle shaped, elongated and bipolar in nature and were having extensive projections showing contacts with neighbouring cells. Dubay et al., (2004) reported that by the lodgment of fibroblast growth factor liberating polyglactone polymer rod into the fascial wound of rat primary incisional hernias were lowered from 60 to 30% and recurrent incisional hernias from 80 to 23%. . In bFGF treated fascia type 1 collagen staining was found to be notably enhanced. Because of absence of HLA Class II antigens stem cells are having low immunogenicity and high immunosuppressive properties (Pereira et al., 2013).Stem cell seeded bioengineered acellular grafts proved to be more effective as they reduce the immunogenicity of grafts and this seems to be a growing field in hernial treatment.

CONCLUSION

Collagen based grafts are widely used degradable biological material for hernioplasty. They can be prepared from a variety of biological materials like skin, diaphragm, aorta, tensor fascia lata, latissimus dorsi muscle etc. Acellular collagen rich tissue matrices are prepared by physical, chemical or enzymatic manipulation of these tissues. Advantages of biological materials include their ability to combat infection, evoke a minimal inflammatory reaction, and enhance proliferation of blood vessels and migration of host cells. Stem cell seeded bioengineered acellular grafts proved to be more effective as they reduce the immunogenicity of grafts and this seems to be a growing field in hernial treatment. Biomaterials have been a gift to the field of surgery involving hernias as they can provide the support and in case of extensive muscular damages.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are highly thankful to the Director of the Institute for providing necessary facilities to carry out this work.

REFERENCES

Acquaviva DE, Bourret P (1944). Cure d'une volumineuse éventration par plaque de nylon. Bull. Med. Soc. Chir. Marseille. 5: 17.

Agresta F, Bedin N (2008). Transabdominal laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair: is there a place for biological mesh? Hernia. 12: 609–612.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10029-008-0390-0
PMid:18584282

Aldridge AJ, Simson JN (2001). Erosion and perforation of colon by synthetic mesh in a recurrent paracolostomy hernia. Hernia. 5: 110–112.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s100290100007
PMid:11505648

Allman AJ, McPherson TB, Balak SF (2001). Xenogenic extracellular matrix grafts elicit a TH2– restricted immune response. Transplantation. 71: 1631–1640.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00007890-200106150-00024
PMid:11435976

Altinli E, Sumer A, Koksal N, Onur E, Senger S, Eroglu E, Celik A, Gumrukcu G (2011). Prevention of adhesion to prosthetic mesh: comparison of oxidized generated cellulose, polyethylene glycol and hylan G–F20. Ulus. Travma. Acil. Cerrahi. Derg. 17: 377–382.
PMid:22090320

Aronson JP, Mitha AP, Brian L, Hoh Pavan K, Auluck, Irina Pomerantseva Joseph P Vacanti, Ogilvy CS (2012). A novel tissue engineering approach using an endothelial progenitor cell–seeded biopolymer to treat intracranial saccular aneurysms, Laboratory investigation. J. Neurosurg. 117(3): 546–554.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2012.5.JNS091308
PMid:22746379

Badylak SF (2002). The extracellular matrix as a scaffold for tissue reconstruction. Cell Dev. Biol. 13: 377–383.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1084952102000940

Badylak SF, Freytas DO, Gilbert TW (2009). Extracellular matrix as a biological scaffold material:structure and function. Acta Biomater. 5: 1–13.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2008.09.013
PMid:18938117

Balasundaram I, Ihsaan Al–Hadad, Parmar S (2012). Recent advances in reconstructive oral and maxillofacial surgery. Brit. J. Oral Max. Surg. 50 (8):695–705.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2011.11.022
PMid:22209448

Bastos ELS, Fagundes DJ, Taha MO, Novo NF, Juliano Y, Simoes MJ, Silvado RAB (2006). The role of bovine preserved peritoneum in rats ventral hernia. A histological evaluation. Acta. Cir. Bras. 21: 328–331.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-86502006000500010
PMid:16981037

Bellon JM, Contreras LA, Bujan J, Carrera–San Martin A (1997). The use of biomaterials in the repair of abdominal wall defects: a comparative study between polypropylene meshes Marlex and a new polytetrafluoroethylene prosthesis Dual Mesh. J. Biomat. Appl. 12: 121.
PMid:9399138

Bellows CF, Albo D, Berger DH, Awad SS (2007). Abdominal wall repair using human acellular dermis. Am. J. Surg. 194:192–198.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2006.11.012
PMid:17618803

Besim H, Yalcin Y, Hamamci O, Arslan K, Sonisik M, Korkmaz A, Erdogan S (2002). Prevention of intra–abdominal adhesions produced by polypropylene mesh. European Surg. Res. 34: 239–43.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000063395
PMid:12077511

Bhattacharya S, Bose PK (1998). Autologus full thickness skin and dermis as suture and graft in dog. Indian Vet. J. 75: 1028–29.

Bianchi ME (2007). DAMPs, PAMPs, alarmins: all we need to know about danger. J. Leukoc. Biol. 81:1–5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1189/jlb.0306164
PMid:17032697

Black AF, Berthod F, L'Heureux N, Germain L, Auger FA (1998). In–vitro reconstruction of a human capillary–like network in a tissue engineered skin equivalent. FASEB J. 12: 1331–40.
PMid:9761776

Bohi KS, Shon J, Rutherford B, Mooney DJ (1998). Role of synthetic extra cellular matrix in development of engineered dental pulp. J. Biomater. Sci. Polymer. 9: 749–64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156856298X00127

Bouffi C, Bony C, Jorgenson C, Noel D (2011). Skin fibroblasts are potent suppressors of inflammation in experimental arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 70(9): 1671.6

Brennman FD, Boulanger BR, Antonyshyn O (1995). Surgical management of abdominal wall disruption after blunt trauma. J. Trauma. 39: 539–544.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005373-199509000-00023

Buchsbaum HJ, Chiristopherson W, Lifshitz S, Bernstein S (1985). Vicryl mesh in pelvic floor reconstruction. Arch. Surg. 120: 1389–91.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.1985.01390360051012
PMid:4062546

Burger JW, Luijendik RW, Hop WC, Halm JA, Verdaardonk EG, Jeekel J (2004). Long term follow–up of a randomized controlled trial of suture versus mesh repair of incisional hernia. Ann. Surg. 4: 578–85.

Chapekar MS (2000). Tissue Engineering: Challenges, Opportunities. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Appl. Biomater. 53: 617–20.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4636(2000)53:6<617::AID-JBM1>3.3.CO;2-3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4636(2000)53:6<617::AID-JBM1>3.0.CO;2-C

Chirila TV (2010). An introduction to ophthalmic biomaterials and their application through tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In Traian Chirila (Ed.),Biomaterials and regenerative medicine in ophthalmology (pp. 1–13) Boca Raton, Oxford: CRC Press, Woodhead.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845697433.1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845697433

Coito AJ, Kupiec–Weglinsky JW (1996). Extracellular matrix protein bystanders or active participants in the allograft rejection cascade? Ann. Transplant. 1: 14–18. PMid:9869914

Cullen DK, Wolf JA, Smith DH, Pfister BJ (2011). Neural tissue engineering for neuroregeneration and biohybridized interface microsystems in vivo (part 2). Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 39 (3): 241–259.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/CritRevBiomedEng.v39.i3.30
http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/CritRevBiomedEng.v39.i3.40
PMid:21967304

Daghighi S, Sjollema J, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ, Rochford ET (2013). Infection resistance of degradable versus non–degradable biomaterials: an assessment of the potential mechanisms. Biomaterials, 34 (33):8013–7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.07.044
PMid:23915949

Dewangan R (2010). In–vitro and¬ in–vivo biocompatibility testing of xenogenic bladder acellular matrix graft n a rabbit model. Ph.D. thesis submitted to Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Deemed University, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Divya PV, Nandakumar K (2006). Local drug delivery–Periocol in periodontics. Trends Biomater. Artif. Organs. 19: 74–80.

Dubay DA, Wang X, Kuhn MA, Robson MC, Franz MG (2004). The prevention of incisional hernia formation using a delayed–release polymer of basic fibroblast growth factor. Ann. Surg. 240: 179–86.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.sla.0000131576.12153.ab
PMid:15213634 PMCid:PMC1356390

Dufrane D, Mourad M, Steenberghe M, Goebbels RM, Gianello P (2008). Regeneration of abdominal wall musculofascial defects by a human acellular collagen matrix. Biomaterials. 29: 2237–40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.01.027
PMid:18281088

Eberli D, Atala A, Yoo JJ (2011). One and four layer acellular bladder matrix for fascial tissue reconstruction. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 22(3):741–51.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10856-011-4242-6
PMid:21286788

Freytas DO, Badylak SF, Webster TJ, Geddes LA, Rundell AE (2004). Biaxial strength of multilaminated extracellular matrix scaffolds. Biomaterials. 25: 2353–61.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.09.015

Gangwar AK (2002). Biomaterials in repair of abdominal wall defects in rabbits and their clinical application. M.V.Sc. thesis submitted to Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Deemed University, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Garfield AS (2010). Derivation of Primary Mouse Embryonic Fibroblast PMEF Cultures, A. Ward and D. Tosh eds., Mouse Cell Culture, Meth. Mol. Biol. 633: 19–27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-019-5_2
PMid:20204617

George RS, Mohammad MSD (1993). Studies on diaphragmatic herniorrhaphy with different prosthetic materials. Indian Vet. J. 70: 255–57.

Gianlupi A, Trindade MRM (2004). Comparison between fixation of polypropylene mesh with polypropylene suture and polyglactin910 suture for treatment of muscle–aponeurotic defects of abdominal wall: experimental study in rats. Acta. Cir. Bras. 19: 94–104.

Gillion JF, Begin GF, Marecos C, Fourtainiar G (1999). Expanded poly tetra fluoro ethylene patches used in the intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal position for repair of incisional hernias of the anterolateral wall. Am. J. Surg. 174: 16–19.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9610(97)00047-0

Gulati AK, Cole GP (1994). Immunogenicity and regenerative potential of acellular nerve allograft to repair peripheral nerve in rats and rabbits. Acta. Neurochir. Wien. 126: 158–64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01476427

Handley WS (1963). En: Behandlung der Bauchnarbenbrüche. Reitter, H. Langenbecks Arch. Klin. Chir. 304: 296–97.

Hashimoto Y, Funamoto S, Sasaki S, Honda T, Hattori S, Nam K (2010). Preparation and characterization of decellularized cornea using high–hydrostatic pressurization for corneal tissue engineering. Biomaterials, 31:3941–8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.01.122
PMid:20163852

Hodde JP, Hiles MC (2002). Virus safety of a porcine–derived medical device: evaluation of a viral inactivation method. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 79: 211–16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bit.10281
PMid:12115437

Huang JH, Cullen DK, Browne KD, Groff R, Zhang J, Pfister BJ, Zager EL, Smith DH (2009). Long–term survival and integration of transplanted engineered nervous tissue constructs promotes peripheral nerve regeneration. Tissue Eng. (Part A) 15(7): 1677–85.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0294
PMid:19231968 PMCid:PMC2792099

Ingle–Fehr JE, Baxter GM, Howard RD, Trotter GW, Stashak TS (1997). Bacterial culturing of ventral median celiotomies for prediction of postoperative incisional complications in horses. Vet. Surg. 26: 7–13.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-950X.1997.tb01456.x
PMid:9123817

Ishikawa O, Kondo A, Okada K, Miyachi Y, Furumura M (1997). Morphological and biochemical analyses on fibroblasts and self–produced collagens in a novel three–dimensional culture. Br. J. Dermatol. 1361: 6–11.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1997.tb08738.x
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.1997.d01-1134.x

Ivkovic A, Marijanovic I, Hudetz D, Porter RM, Pecina M, Evans CH (2011). Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering in orthopaedic surgery. Front Biosci. (Elite Ed). 1(3): 923–44.

Johnson JH (1969). An evaluation of polypropylene implants in ponies. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 154: 779–85.
PMid:4237577

Kaarthick DT (2011). Repair of cutaneous wounds using acellular diaphragm and pericardium of buffalo origin seeded with in–vitro cultured mouse embryonic fibroblast cells in rat model. M. V. Sc. thesis submitted to Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Deemed University, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Kanade MG, Kumar A (1990). Mechanical evaluation of Healing of abdominal defects repaired by stainless steel, nylon and cotton mesh in bovine. Indian Vet. J. 67: 47–50.

Kanade MG, Kumar A, Sharma SN (1988). Repair of abdominal defects by stainless steel and nylon mesh implants in buffaloes: histological and histochemical evaluation. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 58: 415–19.

Kassam MM, Elkammer MH, Korittum AS, Abdel–Wahed A (2014). Using of Polypropylene Mesh for Hernioplasty in Calves. AJVS. 40(1): 112–117.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/ajvs.47290

Kennedy GM, Matyas JA (1999). Use of expanded polytetrafluroethylene in the repair of the difficult hernia. Am. J. Surg. 168: 304–06.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9610(05)80153-9

Khan WS, Longo UG, Adesida A, Denaro V (2012). Stem cell and tissue engineering applications in orthopaedics and musculoskeletal medicine. Stem Cells Int. 2012: 403170.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/403170
PMid:22550506 PMCid:PMC3328235

Kneise G (1953). Erfahrungen und neue Erkenntnisebei der Perlonnetz implantation. Central blatt fur. Chir. 12: 506–11.

Korenkov M, Sauerland S, Arndt M, Bograd L, Neugebauer EA, Troidl H (2002). Randomized clinical trial of suture repair, polypropylene mesh or auto dermal hernioplasty for\ incisional hernia. Br. J. Surg. 89: 50–56.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01974.x
PMid:11851663

Kumar V (2010). Acellular buffalo small intestinal submucosa and fish swim bladder for the repair of full thickness skin wounds in rabbits. M. V. Sc. thesis submitted to Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Deemed University, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Kumar V, Gangwar AK, Mathew DD, Ahamad RA, Saxena A C, Kumar N (2012). Acellular dermal matrix for surgical repair of ventral hernia. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 334: 238–243.

Kurobe H, MW, Breuer CK, Shinoka T (2012). Concise Review: Tissue–Engineered Vascular Grafts for Cardiac Surgery: Past, Present, and Future. Stem Cells Trans. Med. 1(7):566–571.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5966/sctm.2012-0044
PMid:23197861 PMCid:PMC3659720

Lam MT, Wu JC (2012). Biomaterial applications in cardiovascular tissue repair and regeneration. Expert Rev Cardiovasc. Ther. 10(8):1039–49.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/erc.12.99
PMid:23030293 PMCid:PMC3556462

Lamme, Leeuwen V, Brandsma, Marle V, Middlekoop (2000). Higher numbers of autologous fibroblasts in anartificial dermal substitute improve tissue regeneration and modulate scar tissue formation. J. Path. 1905: 595–603.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(200004)190:5<595::AID-PATH572>3.0.CO;2-V

Langer R, Vacanti JP (1993). Tissue engineering. Science. 260 5110: 920–6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.8493529
PMid:8493529

Lee CH, Singla A, Lee Y (2001). Biomedical application of collagen. Int. J. Pharma. 221: 21–22.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4015/S1016237201000169
http://dx.doi.org/10.4015/S1016237201000340

Lichtenstein IL, Shulman AG, Amid PK (1989). The tension–free hernioplasty. Am. J. Surg. 157:188–193.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9610(89)90526-6

Liu VA, Bhatia SN (2002). Three dimensional photopatterning of hydrogels containing living cells. Biomed. Microdevices. 4:257–266.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1020932105236

Longo, Lamberti A, Maffulli N, Denaro V (2010). Tendon augmentation grafts: a systematic review. Br. Med. Bull. 94 (1): 165–188.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldp051
PMid:20047971

Losanoff JE, Richman BW, Jones JW (2002). Enterocolocutaneous fistula: a late consequence of polypropylene mesh abdominal wall repair: case report and review of the literature. Hernia. 6:144–7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10029-002-0067-z
PMid:12209305

Lotze MT (2007).Damage–associated molecular pattern molecules. Clin.Immunol. 124:1–4.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2007.02.006
PMid:17468050 PMCid:PMC2000827

Lutolf MP, Hubbell JA (2005). Synthetic biomaterials as instructive extracellular microenvironments for morphogenesis in tissue engineering. Nat. Biotechnol. 23: 47–55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt1055
PMid:15637621

MacArthur BD, Oreffo RO 2005. Bridging the gap. Nature. 433 7021: 19.

Mahapatra A, Wasim S Khan (2011). Tissue engineering in orthopaedics and musculoskeletal sciences. Open Orthop J. 5: 239–241.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874325001105010239
PMid:21886688 PMCid:PMC3149835

Malangoni MA, Rosen MJ (2007). Hernias. : In Townsend: Sabiston Textbook of Surgery, 18th ed. Chapter 44.

Malone JM, Brendel K, Duhamil RC, Reinert RL (1984). Detergent– extracted small diameter vascular prostheses. J. Vasc. Surg. 1: 181–91.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mva.1984.avs0010181
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0741-5214(84)90197-6

Moroni F, Mirabella T (2014). Decellularized matrices for cardiovascular tissue engineering. Am J Stem Cells. 3(1):1–20.
PMid:24660110 PMCid:PMC3960753

Nagao RJ, Lundy S, Khaing ZZ, Schmidt CE (2011). Functional characterization of optimized acellular peripheral nerve graft in a rat sciatic nerve injury model. Neurol Res. 33(6):600–8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1743132810Y.0000000023
PMid:21708069

Negro P, Basile F, Brescia A, Buonanno GM, Campanelli G, Canonico S, Cavalli M, Corrado G, Coscarella G, DiLorenzo N (2011). Open tension–free Lichtenstein repair of inguinal hernia: use of fibrin glue versus sutures for mesh fixation. Hernia. 15: 7–14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10029-010-0706-8
PMid:20676711

Oliver RF, Grant RA, Cox RW, Crooke A (1982). Dermal collagen implants. Biomaterials. 23: 38–40
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0142-9612(82)90059-X

Pang K, Du L, Wu X (2010). A rabbit anterior cornea replacement derived from acellular porcine cornea matrix, epithelial cells and keratocytes. Biomaterials. 31:7257–65.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.05.066
PMid:20598368

Penttinen R, Grönroos JM (2008). Mesh repair of common abdominal hernias: a review on experimental and clinical studies. Hernia. 12: 337–344.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10029-008-0362-4
PMid:18351432

Pereira T, Gartner A, Amorim I, Armada–da–Silva P, Gomes R, Pereira C, França ML, Morais DM, Rodrigues MA, Lopes MA, Santos JD, Luís AL, Maurício AC (2013). Biomaterials and stem cell therapies for injuries associated to skeletal muscular tissues. Advances in Biomaterials Science and Biomedical Applications. Pp–346
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53335

Perme H (2007). In–vitro and in–vivo biocompatibility of cross–linked bovine pericardium and diaphragm. M. V. Sc. thesis submitted to Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Deemed University, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Petite H, Feri V, Huc A, Herbage D (1994). Use of diphenylephosphorylazide for cross–linking collagen based biomaterials. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 28: 159–165
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jbm.820280204
PMid:8207026

Pu F, Rhodes NP, Bayon Y, Chen R, Brans G, Benne R, Hunt JA (2010). The use of flow perfusion culture and subcutaneous implantation with fibroblast–seeded PLLA–collagen 3–D scaffolds for abdominal wall repair. Biomaterials. 31: 4330–40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.02.010
PMid:20219244

Purohit S (2008). Biocompatibility testing of acellular dermal grafts in a rabbit model: An in–vitro and in–vivo study. Ph. D. thesis submitted to Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Deemed University, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Ratner BD, Hoffman AS, Schoen FJ, Lemons J (2004). Biomaterials Science: A Multidisciplinary Endeavor. Biomaterials Science, 2nd ed (pp–346) Elsevier Inc.

Read RC (2011). Crucial steps in the evolution of the preperitoneal approaches to the groin: a historical review. Hernia. 15: 1–5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10029-010-0739-z
PMid:20976610

Reginald CWB, Jacqueline F, Katherine DF (2013). Allograft dermal matrix hiatoplasty during laparoscopic primary fundoplication, paraesophagal hernia repair, and reoperation for failed hiatal hernia repair. Surg. Endosc. 27(6): 1997–2004.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00464-012-2700-y
PMid:23299134 PMCid:PMC3661044

Remya V (2012).Tissue engineered fish swim bladder scaffold seeded with bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells of rat and goat for dermal tissue reconstruction. M. V. Sc. thesis submitted to Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Deemed University, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Ripley WA, McCarnan (1974). Umbilical hernia repair with mersilenemesh. Canadian Vet. J. 15: 357–61.
PMid:4434321 PMCid:PMC1696726

Rosenberg AS, Mizuochi T, Sharrow SO, Singer A (1987). Phenotype, specificity and function of T cell subsets and T cell interactions involved in skin allograft rejection. J. Exptl. Med. 165: 1296–99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.165.5.1296
PMid:2437237

Rousch JK (2003). Biomaterials and surgical implants. In Textbook of small animal surgery. Edited by Slatter, D. H., 3rdedn. Saunders, Philadelphia, USA. Pp141–48.

Kew SJ, Gwynne JH, Enea D, Abu–Rub M, Pandit A, Zeugolis D, Brooks RA, Rushton N, Best SM, Cameron RE (2011). Regeneration and repair of tendon and ligament tissue using collagen fibre biomaterials. Acta Biomater. 7(9): 3237–3247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2011.06.002
PMid:21689792

Schmidt CE, Baier JM (2000). Acellular vascular tissue: natural biomaterials for tissue repair and tissue engineering. Biomaterials. 21: 2215–31.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00148-4

Schoen FJ (2011). Heart valve tissue engineering: quo vadis? Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 22:698–705.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2011.01.004
PMid:21315575

Seddon AM, Curnow P, Booth PJ (2004). Membrane proteins, lipids and detergents: not just a soap opera. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 166: 105–17.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2004.04.011
PMid:15519311

Sheridan WS, Duffy GP, Murphy BP (2013). Optimum parameters for freeze–drying decellularized arterial scaffolds. Tissue Eng C Meth. 19(12):981–90.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ten.tec.2012.0741
PMid:23614758

Shi C, Chen W, Zhao Y, Chen B, Xiao Z, Wei Z, Hou X, Tang J, Wang Z, Dai J (2011). Regeneration of full–thickness abdominal wall defects in rats using collagen scaffolds loaded with collagen–binding basic fibroblast growth factor. Biomaterials. 32: 753–59.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.09.038
PMid:20937527

Shoukry M, El–Keiey M, Hamouda M, Gadallah S (1997). Commercial polyester fabric repair of abdominal hernias and defects. Vet. Rec. 140: 606–07.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.140.23.606
PMid:9203320

Singh O, Gupta SS, Soni M, Moses S, Shukla S, Mathur RK (2011). Collagen dressing versus conventional dressings in burn and chronic wounds: A retrospective study. J. Cutan. Aesthet. Surg. 4(1): 12–16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0974-2077.79180
PMid:21572675 PMCid:PMC3081477

Stephenson BM, Kingsnorth AN (2011). Safety and sterilization of mosquito net mesh for humanitarian inguinal hernioplasty. World J. Surg. 35:1957–1960.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00268-011-1176-6
PMid:21713575

Stock FE (1954). Repair of large hernia with nylon mesh. Lancet. 10: 395.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(54)90930-7

Stoppa RG, Rives J (1984). The use of dacron in the repair of hernias of the groin. Surg. Clin. North América. 64: 269–85.

Takahashi M, Ono K, Wakakuwa R, Sato O, Tsuchiya T, Kamya G, Nitta K, Tajima K, Wada K (1994). Use of human dura matter allograft for the repair of a contaminated abdominal wall defect. Surg. Today. 24: 468– 72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01427043
PMid:8054821

Tohyama H, Yoshikawa T, Young–Jin Ju, Yasuda K (2009). Revascularization in the tendon graft following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction of the knee: its mechanisms and regulation. Chang Gung. Med. J. 32(2): 133–139
PMid:19403002

Trese M, Regatieri CV, Young MJ (2012). Advances in Retinal Tissue Engineering. Materials 5:108–120.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma5010108

Turner NJ, Valentin JE, Sicari BM, Badylak SF (2011). Biologic Scaffolds for Skeletal Muscle Reconstruction. Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, USA

Usher FC, Ochsner J, Tuttle LL (1958). Use of Marlex mesh in the repair of incisional hernias. J. Am. Surg. 24: 969–74.

Van der Veen V, Van der Wal MB, Van Leeuwen MC, Ulrich MM, Midelkoop E (2010). Biological backgroud of dermal substitutes. Burns. 36: 305–21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2009.07.012
PMid:19897310

Wang S, Goecke T, Meixner C, Haverich A, Hilfiker A, Wolkers WF (2012). Freeze–dried heart valve scaffolds. Tissue Eng. Part C Methods. 18(7):517–25.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ten.tec.2011.0398
PMid:22224705

Vilar JM, Doreste F, Spinella G, Valentin S (2009). Double layer mesh hernioplasty for repair of incisional hernias in 15 horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 29: 172–76.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2009.02.001

Witzel O (1900) Uber den verschluss van bauchwunden und bruchp fortendurch versenktesilberdrahtnetze. Zetralbl. Chir. 27: 3.

Wong ML, Griffiths LG (2014). Immunogenicity in xenogeneic scaffold generation: Antigen removal vs. decellularization. Acta Biomater. 10(5): 1806–1816
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2014.01.028
PMid:24486910

Yannas IV (1996). Natural materials. In: Ratner BD, Hoffman AS, Schoen FJ, Lemon J E, editor. Biomaterial Science, Academic Press, San Diego. pp 84–94.

Yoo JJ, Meng J, Oberpenning F, Atala A (1998). Bladder augmentation using allogenic bladder submucosa seeded with cells. Urology. 51: 221–25.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(97)00644-4

Youssef Aachoui, Swapan K Ghosh (2011). Extracellular matrix from porcine small intestinal submucosa (sis) as immune adjuvants. PLoS ONE, 8(12) DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027083
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027083

Yusuke Sakai, Makiko Koike, Hideko Hasegawa, Kosho Yamanouchi, Akihiko Soyama, Mitsuhisa Takatsuki, Tamotsu Kuroki, Kazuo Ohashi, Teruo Okano, Susumu Eguchi (2013). Rapid Fabricating Technique for Multi–Layered Human Hepatic Cell Sheets by Forceful Contraction of the Fibroblast Monolayer. PLoS ONE 8(12).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070970
PMid:23923035

Zang M, Zhang Q, Chang EI, Mathur AB, Yu P (2012). Decellularized tracheal matrix scaffold for tissue engineering. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 130(3):532–40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e31825dc084
PMid:22929238

Zhang F, Zhang J, Lin S, Oswald T, Sones W, Cai Z, Dorsett–Martin W, Lineaweaver WC (2003). Small intestinal submucosa in abdominal wall repair after TRAM flaps harvesting in a rat model. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 112: 565–70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.PRS.0000070966.74429.03
PMid:12900615

Zhang M, Wang Y, Wang D, Pan Y, Chen J (2002). Studies on xenogenic acellular dermal matrix as filling material. Zhonghua Zheng Xing Wai Ke Za Zhi. 18: 263–65.
PMid:12471810

Zhao YY, Zhang ZZ, Wang JJ, Yin PP, Zhou JJ, Zhen MM, Cui WW, Xu GG, Yang DD, Liu ZZ (2012). Abdominal hernia repair with a decellularized dermal scaffold seeded with autologous bone marrow–derived mesenchymal stem cells. Artif. Organs. 36: 247–55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1594.2011.01343.x
PMid:21899574

Zhu WD, Xu YM, Feng C, Fu Q, Song LJ, Cui, L (2010). Bladder reconstruction with adipose–derived stem cell–seeded bladder acellular matrix grafts improve morphology composition. World J. Urol. 28: 493–498.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00345-010-0508-8
PMid:20091038